Salzmark Research Library
For your education. The studies collected here inspired our cutting boards. None are product specific testing/claims about our products.
Wood & Bacteria
"These results do not support the often-heard assertion that plastic cutting boards are more sanitary than wood."
Wood has been used in contact with food for centuries.
Wood science research since the 1990s suggests that wood can limit bacterial survival in ways nonporous materials such as plastic do not.
Citation: Ak, N., & Cliver, D. O. (1994). Cutting boards of plastic and wood contaminated experimentally with bacteria. Journal of Food Protection, 57(1), 16–22. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-57.1.16
Summary: This study tested bacteria from raw meat and poultry on plastic and wooden cutting board samples. Bacteria survived and multiplied for hours on plastic, but were absorbed into clean wood within minutes and often became unrecoverable. Even with high contamination, wood reduced bacterial numbers by at least 98%, and often over 99.9%.
Citation:
Park, P., & Cliver, D. O. (1996). Disinfection of household cutting boards with a microwave oven. Journal of Food Protection, 59(10), 1049–1054. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-59.10.1049
Summary:
This study evaluated microwave disinfection of used wooden and plastic cutting boards heavily scarred from use. Boards were inoculated with up to 10⁹ CFU of E. coli or other bacteria. Microwaving wooden boards for 3–4 minutes at a high setting eliminated nearly all vegetative bacteria, with surface temperatures reaching ~95°C. Plastic boards, in contrast, showed almost no bacterial reduction even after 12 minutes, with surface temperatures staying below 40°C. Moisture enhanced the killing effect on wood but had negligible impact on plastic.
Citation:
Ak, N., Cliver, D. O., & Kaspari, C. (1994). Decontamination of plastic and wooden cutting boards for kitchen use. Journal of Food Protection, 57(1), 23–30. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-57.1.23
Summary:
This study tested new and used cutting boards made from four types of plastic, hard rubber, and nine hardwoods to assess bacterial survival and cleaning effectiveness. E. coli (including O157:H7), Listeria spp., and Salmonella typhimuriumwere applied in nutrient broth or chicken juice. On clean wood, liquid inoculum was absorbed within 3–10 minutes and bacteria could not be recovered. In contrast, bacteria persisted and sometimes multiplied on plastic surfaces, particularly if knife-scarred and contaminated with chicken fat. Coating wood with chicken fat allowed some bacterial survival up to 12 hours, but cleaning with hot water and detergent effectively removed contamination from both materials.
Citation:
Galluzzo, L., & Cliver, D. O. (1996). Cutting boards and bacteria — oak vs. Salmonella. Dairy, Food and Environmental Sanitation, 16(5), 290–293.
Summary:
This study tested Salmonella enteritidis survival on oak cutting boards and related wood forms (chips, dust, pressed dust). In all cases, bacteria rapidly became unrecoverable after inoculation. The effect appeared to be physical—possibly due to adhesion and drying—rather than chemical, since solvent extraction of wood did not reduce the effect. Pure cellulose filter paper was similarly effective.
Citation:
Aviat, F., Gerhards, C., Rodriguez-Jerez, J.-j., Michel, V., Bayon, I. L., Ismail, R., & Federighi, M. (2016). Microbial safety of wood in contact with food: A review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 15(3), 491–505. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12199
Summary:
This review analyzed 20 years of scientific research on the microbiological behavior of wood used for direct food contact. Despite common concerns about its porous surface, studies show that wood can create unfavorable conditions for microorganisms and may even inhibit their growth. Natural wood produces antimicrobial compounds and, in many cases, outperforms smoother materials like plastic in limiting microbial survival. The authors also discuss European regulations, noting that while wood has been safely used for centuries, specific rules vary by country.
Citation:
Cliver, D. O. (2006). Cutting boards in Salmonella cross-contamination. Journal of AOAC International, 89(2), 538–542. PMID: 16640304
Summary:
This review examined how wood and plastic cutting boards contribute to cross-contamination with Salmonella. Knife-scarred plastic surfaces—especially high-density polyethylene—can be difficult to clean and may delaminate. Wood’s porosity allows juices and bacteria to enter, but once absorbed, bacteria generally do not return to the surface. Destructive sampling can recover bacteria from within the wood, but there is no evidence they re-emerge during cutting. Two epidemiological studies found that cleaning habits had little impact on sporadic salmonellosis rates, and one indicated that plastic board use in home kitchens was associated with higher risk, while wood use was not.
Citation:
Lücke, F. K., & Skowyrska, A. (2015). Hygienic aspects of using wooden and plastic cutting boards, assessed in laboratory and small gastronomy units. Journal of Consumer Protection and Food Safety, 10, 317–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00003-015-0949-5
Summary:
This study compared maple, beech, and polyethylene cutting boards in both a controlled laboratory setting and a small commercial kitchen. Surfaces were contaminated with a meat–egg mixture and cleaned according to manufacturer instructions before being swabbed for microbiological analysis. No significant differences were found in hygienic status among the three board types, and all were deemed acceptable. In practical use, a maple board used in a small gastronomic unit for two months did not present cleaning issues.
Citation:
Puspanadan, S., Mohd. Shahril, N., Tang, J. Y. H., Rukayadi, Y., Nishibuchi, M., Nakaguchi, Y., & Radu, S. (2014). Transmission of Listeria monocytogenes from raw chicken meat to cooked chicken meat through cutting boards. Food Control, 37, 51–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.08.030
Summary:
This study tested how Listeria monocytogenes transfers from contaminated raw chicken to cooked chicken via polyethylene and wooden cutting boards. Both materials allowed bacterial attachment and survival for up to one hour. Transfer to cooled cooked chicken was higher than to hot cooked chicken for both board types. At the one-hour mark, wooden boards showed lower transfer rates to both cooled and hot cooked samples compared to polyethylene boards.
Citation:
DeVere, E., & Purchase, D. (2007). Effectiveness of domestic antibacterial products in decontaminating food contact surfaces. Food Microbiology, 24(4), 425–430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2006.07.013
Summary:
This study tested two antibacterial wipes and two sprays on wood, glass, plastic, and Microban®-treated plastic surfaces contaminated with E. coli and S. aureus. Without any cleaning products, bacteria survived up to 120 minutes on all surfaces, with glass and plastic showing no reduction, while wood retained fewer than 8% of the original bacteria. Drying time had little effect on glass and plastic but further reduced bacterial survival on wood and Microban® plastic. Antibacterial products were generally effective when used according to instructions, though their efficacy was slightly lower on plastic compared to other surfaces.
Citation:
Munir, M., Pailhories, H., Eveillard, M., Aviat, F., Lepelletier, D., Belloncle, C., & Federighi, M. (2019). Antimicrobial characteristics of untreated wood: Towards a hygienic environment. Health, 11(2), 152–170. https://doi.org/10.4236/health.2019.112014
Summary:
This review examined the natural antimicrobial properties of untreated wood in contexts such as healthcare and food production. It explored how characteristics like hygroscopicity, porosity, roughness, chemical composition, wood species, age, and cut type influence wood’s hygienic performance. The authors found that, despite concerns about its porous nature, untreated wood can compare favorably to materials like plastic, glass, and steel, often inhibiting microbial survival. They highlight its potential as a safe, renewable resource and call for further research into its use in critical hygiene environments.
Research on other applications of wood in the Food Industry and Healthcare (Pasta Drying Racks, Containers for Fish, Cheese Shelves, etc) also suggest wood has natural properties that limit bacterial growth.
For example, older wooden pasta drying racks seem to be more hygienic than their new plastic counterparts.
Citation:
Revol-Junelles, A.-M., Miguindou-Mabiala, R., Roger-Maigné, D., & Millière, J.-B. (2005). Behavior of Escherichia colicells and Bacillus cereus spores on poplar wood crates by impedance measurements. Journal of Food Protection, 68(1), 80–84. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-68.1.80
Summary:
This study tested the survival of E. coli and B. cereus spores on dry poplar wood crates compared to glass surfaces. On wood, bacterial activity dropped rapidly—B. cereus activity fell to <10% within 4 hours, and low-level E. colicontamination became undetectable within 24 hours. Even with a high E. coli inoculum, only a few viable cells remained after 145 hours. In contrast, glass surfaces supported bacterial growth, reaching ~10⁹ cells for E. coli after 24 hours.
Citation:
Ripolles-Avila, C., Hascoët, A. S., Ríos-Castillo, A. G., & Rodríguez-Jerez, J. J. (2019). Hygienic properties exhibited by single-use wood and plastic packaging on the microbial stability for fish. LWT, 113, 108309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108309
Summary:
This study evaluated pine and poplar wood versus high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and expanded polystyrene (EPS) packaging for fish. While plastic materials showed bacterial growth (S. aureus counts increased by 0.7–1.2 log CFU/cm²), poplar slightly reduced bacteria (−0.1 log) and pine significantly reduced bacterial load by 2.84 log CFU/cm². Cross-contamination tests showed that wood packaging did not compromise fish quality or safety, with microbial counts decreasing after seven days in contact with fish.
Citation:
Munir, M. T., Belloncle, C., & Irle, M. (2019). Wood-based litter in poultry production: a review. World’s Poultry Science Journal, 75(1), 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043933918000909
Summary:
This review examined the use of wood-based bedding in poultry production, focusing on its physical, chemical, and antimicrobial properties. In France, 80% of turkey production uses wood-based litter, which produces roughly 50% less ammonia than alternatives like sand or hulls. Wood litter supports bird welfare, reduces locomotion injuries, and promotes natural behaviors. Studies show potential improvements of 5–7% in weight gain, feed conversion, and survivability. The antimicrobial nature of wood may also help reduce certain pathogens in the poultry environment.
Citation:
[Authors not listed in abstract]. (2017). An assessment of L. monocytogenes transfer from wooden ripening shelves to cheeses: Comparison with glass and plastic surfaces. Food Control, 73(B), 273–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.08.014
Summary:
This study compared the transfer of Listeria monocytogenes from spruce cheese-ripening shelves, glass plates, and plastic sheets to pressed non-cooked cheeses. Boards were inoculated with ~10⁵ CFU/cm² L. monocytogenes, and transfer was measured over varying cheese contact times and moisture levels. Within the first hour, transfer rates were below 3% for all surfaces, with wooden boards showing the lowest rate at 0.55%. Wood moisture content and cheese dryness did not significantly affect transfer.
Citation:
Filip, S., Fink, R., Oder, M., & others. (2012). Hygienic acceptance of wood in food industry. Wood Science and Technology, 46, 657–665. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-011-0440-0
Summary:
This study compared wooden and plastic trays used in dried egg pasta production by swabbing 210 samples for total aerobic counts, Enterobacteriaceae, E. coli, moulds, yeasts, and Staphylococcus aureus. E. coli was not detected on either material. For all other microbial measurements, results showed statistical differences in colony counts between materials, but both met acceptable hygiene standards. The authors concluded that wood is suitable for use in the food industry from both hygienic and technological perspectives.
These studies look at what changes when wood is coated, treated, or otherwise modified.
Citation:
Vega Gutierrez, S. M., Vega Gutierrez, P. T., Waite-Cusic, J., & Robinson, S. C. (2023). Wood cutting board finishes and their effect on bacterial growth. Coatings, 13(4), 752. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13040752
Summary:
This study tested how applying coatings (hardening or non-hardening oils) to four wood species affected bacterial survival. Boards were inoculated with Listeria or Salmonella and then “stamped” onto sterile agar at set intervals to measure recoverable bacteria. Coated boards had significantly more recoverable bacteria on the surface than uncoated boards, with no significant difference between oil types. Species mattered: European beech had the lowest surface bacteria with Salmonella, and oak species had the lowest with Listeria. The results suggest that coatings can hinder wood’s natural ability to draw bacteria into its interior, where they are less likely to survive.
Citation: Bohinc, K., Kekec, D., & Petrič, M. (2019).Adhesion of bacteria to wood coatings(Adhezija bakterij na lesne premaze).Les/Wood, 68(2), 45–58. URN: NBN:SI:doc‑CPZALCBL https://doi.org/10.26614/les-wood.2019.v68n02a04
Summary: The study evaluated how different coatings on beech plywood—linseed oil,water-borne stain,nitrocellulose varnish, andnano-coating—affect bacterial adhesion, usingPseudomonas aeruginosaas the test microbe. Surface textures and bacterial attachment were analyzed throughSEM micrographs. Among all tested coatings,linseed oil showed the highest bacterial adhesion. Surfaces treated with nano-coating (and potentially uncoated control) had the lowest adhesion. The authors note that these are preliminary findings and recommend further, more comprehensive research.
Wood & the Senses
Research suggests that seeing, touching, and smelling wood can produce measurable changes in the nervous system.
Studies have examined brain activity, heart-rate variability, and other physiological responses to wood, often comparing natural wood with synthetic or mineral materials.
Citation:
Lipovac, D., & Burnard, M. D. (2021). Effects of visual exposure to wood on human affective states, physiological arousal and cognitive performance: A systematic review of randomized trials. Indoor and Built Environment, 30(8), 1021–1041. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X20927437
Summary:
This systematic review examined nine experimental studies involving a total of 386 participants to assess how visual exposure to wooden surfaces affects emotional states, physiological arousal, and cognitive performance. The reviewed experiments compared real or simulated wooden interiors with environments containing non-wood materials, using measures including heart rate, blood pressure, brain activity, and psychological questionnaires. Studies involving longer exposure to wooden environments generally reported more positive emotional states and reduced physiological arousal, although results varied across experiments. The authors concluded that visual exposure to wood may improve certain indicators of stress while noting that additional controlled research is needed to establish the consistency and magnitude of these effects.
Citation:
Kotradyova, V., Vavrinsky, E., Kalinakova, B., Petro, D., Jansakova, K., Boles, M., & Svobodova, H. (2019). Wood and its impact on humans and environment quality in health care facilities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(18), 3496. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16183496
Summary:
This case study explored the effects of wood in a healthcare environment by measuring physiological and emotional responses of 50 volunteers in a wooden waiting room at the National Oncology Institute in Bratislava. Over a 20-minute stay, measures included EEG, ECG, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, and cortisol levels, as well as facial emotion analysis. Results suggested wood’s positive impact on the human nervous system, linked to its aesthetics, tactile comfort, scent, humidity regulation, low VOC emissions, and acoustic qualities.
Citation:
Matsubara, E., & Kawai, S. (2014). VOCs emitted from Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) interior walls induce physiological relaxation. Building and Environment, 72, 125–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.10.023
Summary:
This Japanese study investigated whether naturally occurring volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released from cedar interior walls influence physiological stress responses. Sixteen male university students performed arithmetic tasks under conditions with and without exposure to cedar emissions. Researchers measured heart rate, autonomic nervous activity, salivary stress markers, task performance, and subjective impressions of the odor. Exposure to cedar emissions suppressed increases in salivary alpha-amylase and chromogranin A, two markers associated with stress responses, and participants rated the odor as pleasant. The results suggest that compounds naturally emitted by Japanese cedar can influence autonomic nervous system activity and may contribute to physiological relaxation in indoor environments.
Citation:
Kumpulainen, S., Kilpiäinen, M., Koski, J., & Pesola, A. J. (2024). Wooden interiors improve heart rate variability-derived psychophysiological well-being: An acute cross-over study. Environment and Behavior, 56(3–4), 155–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139165241270631
Summary:
This Finnish study examined how interior materials affect physiological and emotional well-being in 45 adults. Participants spent 10 minutes relaxing in each of two otherwise identical rooms: one with visible spruce walls and pine flooring, and another finished with gray resin plaster. Researchers measured heart-rate variability and breathing rate, alongside questionnaires assessing emotions and sensory perceptions. In the wooden room, participants breathed approximately one breath per minute more slowly, showed higher values in one heart-rate variability measure, and reported significantly more positive and fewer negative emotions. The study's primary heart-rate variability measure did not differ significantly between rooms. Overall, the results suggest that wooden interiors may promote physiological relaxation and more positive emotional responses compared with synthetic interior surfaces.
Citation:
Nakamura, M., Ikei, H., & Miyazaki, Y. (2019). Physiological effects of visual stimulation with full-scale wall images composed of vertically and horizontally arranged wooden elements. Journal of Wood Science, 65, 55. https://doi.org/10.1186/s10086-019-1834-0
Summary:
This Japanese study investigated whether looking at wood could produce measurable physiological relaxation. Twenty-eight female university students viewed full-scale images of wooden walls with vertically and horizontally arranged boards, alongside a plain gray control image, for 90 seconds each. Researchers measured prefrontal cortex activity, heart-rate variability, and subjective emotional responses. Both wooden-wall images significantly reduced activity in the left and right prefrontal cortex compared with the gray image. Participants also rated the wooden walls as more comfortable, relaxing, and natural, with vertically arranged wood producing more positive psychological responses than horizontally arranged wood. The findings suggest that visual exposure to wood alone can influence brain activity and perceived relaxation.
Citation:
Ikei, H., Song, C., & Miyazaki, Y. (2017). Physiological effects of touching coated wood. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(7), 773. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14070773
Summary:
This companion Japanese study investigated whether surface finishes change the physiological effects of touching wood. Eighteen female university students touched white oak samples with five different surface treatments: uncoated, oil-finished, vitreous-finished, urethane-finished, and mirror-finished. Each surface was touched for 90 seconds while researchers monitored prefrontal cortex activity, heart-rate variability, and heart rate. Uncoated wood produced significantly lower prefrontal cortex activity than urethane- and mirror-finished wood, and greater parasympathetic nervous activity than vitreous-, urethane-, and mirror-finished wood. Oil- and vitreous-finished samples also produced some relaxation-related responses, but uncoated wood showed the strongest overall pattern. The findings suggest that surface treatments can influence the body's physiological response to touching wood.
Citation:
Ikei, H., Song, C., & Miyazaki, Y. (2017). Physiological effects of touching wood. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(7), 801. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14070801
Summary:
This Japanese study examined physiological responses in 18 female university students as they touched uncoated white oak, marble, ceramic tile, and stainless steel with their palms for 90 seconds each. Researchers measured activity in the prefrontal cortex using near-infrared spectroscopy and autonomic nervous system responses using heart-rate variability. Compared with all three non-wood materials, touching white oak significantly reduced prefrontal cortex activity. It also increased parasympathetic nervous activity compared with marble and stainless steel. Participants rated the wood as more comfortable, relaxing, natural, and warm, suggesting that direct contact with uncoated wood can produce measurable physiological relaxation.
